التنمية المستدامة للإنتاج- الجزء الثالث

of solutes on either side of the membrane. Water will always move toward the side that has a greater concentration of solutes.

solute A substance (like salt) that is dissolved in the solvent (like water).

tonicity For a cell in solution, a measure of the concentration of solutes outside the cell relative to that inside the cell.

isotonic Solutions with equal concentrations of solutes.

hypertonic of two solutions, the one with a higher concentration of solutes.

hypotonic of two solutions, that with a lower concentration of solutes.

حدوث Osmosisفى الخياشيم :Osmosis occurs in the gills ال تتحرك المياه بسهولة خالل جلد الأسماك )يمكن للمياه الحركة خالل أغشية الخاليا( ولكن ممكن لها الحركة خالل بطانة خياشيم الأسماك The living of the fish`s gillsبسهولة شديدة يجب أن تكون الخياشيم منفذة جدا ليسمح ويمكن الأكسجين من المياه من الدخول فى شعيرات الخياشيم

وإمداد الأسماك بالأكسجين.

عند تدفق المياه المالحة )من المحيطات( فوق خياشيم الأسماك ،يكون الماء hypertonicللدم فى شعيرات الخياشيم ،مسببا خروج المياه من انسجة الخياشيم حيث يفقد .هذا يعني أن أسماك المياه المالحة دائما تفقد المياه بثبات خارج تيار الدم لها خالل .osmosis عند تدفق المياه العذبة )من البحيرات والتيارات( فوق خياشيم الأسماك ،يكون الماء hypotonic للدم فى شعيرات الخياشيم ،مسببا دخول المياه الى أنسجة الخياشيم .هذا يعنى أن أسماك المياه العذبة تكتسب المياه بثبات داخل تيار الدم خالل .osmosis فقد وإكتساب المياه بالإسموزية فى السمك تتعامل من خالل التنظيم الإسموزي :

The loss and gain of water by osmosis in fish is dealt with by

osmoregulation:

لمقاومة تأثيرات الإسموزية osmosisفى خياشيمها ،فإن كال من المياه العذبة ومياه البحر لها القدرة على الخضوع على التنظيم الإسموزي osmoregulationولكن حيث نتائج الإسموزية تكون عكس لها ،وكالهما يجب أن يكون نمط لإلسموزية حيث يرتبط أسماك المياه العذبة وأسماك

المياه البحرية.

الشكل التالي يوضح جميع مفاتيح الإختالفات التى تحدث بين أسماك المياه العذبة ومياه البحر.

شكل )(١٥٠

٧١٤

ولكن هل تشرب الأسماك،كل من أسماك المياه العذبة وأسماك مياه البحر تأتى لها المياه الى فمها مقاومةhypotonic أسماك المياه العذبة تأتي لها المياه خالل الفم ولكن حيث تكون،المياه جميع هذه المياه تتجه فوق الخياشيم وتخرج خالل أغطية الخياشيم أسماك المياه العذبة ال،بأنسجتها وترسل،hypertonic ولكن حيثما تأتى المياه الى فم أسماك المياه المالحة تكون.تشرب المياه نفس الطريق يحدث لإلنسان عندما يشرب )والباقي يذهب.بعضها الى أسفل خالل الجهاز الهضمي

. أسماك مياه البحر تشرب المياه.(فوق الخياشيم

.يشمل الإختالفات بين أسماك المياه العذبة وأسماك مياه البحر أنماطها المختلفة جدا فى الإخراج وتخرج الأسماك كميات كبيرة،حيث تتحرك المياه الى تيار دم أسماك المياه العذبة خالل الخياشيم هذا البول يتم تخفيفة جدا )بنفس الطريقة يصبح البول رائق وواضح إذا تم شرب مياه.من البول

.(أكثر من إحتياجات الأنظمة

وتخرج الأسماك كميات قليلة جدا،تتحرك المياه خارج تيار دم أسماك مياه البحر خالل الخياشيم هذا البول يكون مركز جدا مع كميات من المخلفات وأمالح ذائبة )بنفس الطريقة فى.من البول

.(الإنسان عندما يكون البول غامق عند الجفاف

:الأسماك

:القيمة الهضمية والغذائية

*- All ingredient were first ground to a small particle size (approximately 250 μm) in a Wiley mill. Dry ingredients were thoroughly mixed prior to adding water to 40% moisture. Diets were passed through a mincer with die into 3-mm diameter spaghetti-like strands, sun dried and stored in airtight containers. Proximate composition of the experimental diets was determined according to A.O.A.C (1995), while crude fiber in fish diets was determined according to methods of Berdon and Juko (1961). Total carbohydrate content (NFE) of diets was calculated by difference. (100(moisture + crude protein + crude fat + crude ash + crude fiber)). Gross energy (GE) was calculated using the gross energy values for the macronutrients (23.4 kj g-1 protein, 39.8 kj g-1 fat and 17.2 kj g-1 carbohydrate, fiber was not included in calculation) according to Lovell,

1989.

A.O.A.C (1995). Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of analysis, 16th edition, AOAO, Arlington, VG, USA.

Berdon, R. M. and C. D. Juko (1961). A semi-micro technique for crude fiber determination. Journal Science Food and Agricultutre 12, 196-201.

Lovell, R. T. (1989). Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. Van Nostrand

Reinhold. New York, New York USA.

Sci., 3: 41-43.

*- The energy value of each diet was calculated using the gross energy values for the macronutrients (5.6 kcal/g protein, 9.5 kcal/g fat and 4.1 kcal/g carbohydrate, fiber was not included in calculation). The

٧١٥

Fish were homogenized for whole body composition and frozen at - 18°C until analyzed. Samples were analyzed as follows: dry matter after desiccation in an oven (105°C for 24h), crude protein (micro kjeldahl, Nx 6.25), crude lipid (ether extraction by soxlhet method), crude fiber (AOAC, 1995) and gross energy (Ballistic bomb calorimeter, Gallenkamp,

England).

AOAC (Association of Official Chemists), (1995). Official methods of analysis, 16th edition, AOAC, Arlington, Virginia.

:(١٩٤) جدول

Items %

Dry matter

(DM)

Organic matter

(OM)

Crude protein

(CP)

Crude fiber

(CF)

Ether extract

(EE)

Nitrogen free extract (NFE)

Ash

On DM basis %

Protein Sources

Soybean Nigella seed

Meal

Meal

(SBM)

(NSM)

92.46

93.47

95.11

94.58

44.21

34.21

1.67

3.07

1.45

8.81

47.78

48.49

4.89

5.42

Sunflower

Meal

(SFM)

90.98

92.99

31.97

9.29

5.62

46.11

7.01

The digestible energy (DE) was calculated as described by Fekete and

Guppert (1986):

DE (kcal/kg DM) = 4253 – 32.6 (CF %) – 144.4 (Ash %).

Seneory analysis

Sensory analysis was carried out on meat stored in a freezer at - 16°Cfor 1 month. Meat samples were boiled in water for 30 min. A trained 12 panel members evaluated the samples using a scale of 1 to 10, Where: 1 was the lowest and 10 being the highest intensity for all. The parameterswere color, taste, flavor, appearance, texture and overall acceptability (Kjos et al,

2000).

Kjos, N. P.; Herstad, O.; Overl and M. and Skred, A., (2000). Effects of dietary fish silag and fish fat on growth performance and meat quality of

broiler chicks. Cand.

:سيالج السمك

*- Fish silage was prepared using trash fish of unmarke table size, which is unused for human composition, the fish were collected from the local market in kafr El-Sheikin city and well washed, minced and homogenized.

One and half percent from each of conce. Sulphuric and cocn. Formic acid were added to the homogenized fish mixture according to Jackson et al.

(1984). The fish mixture was transferred thereafter to plastic bags and

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was weighed at the beginning and every week throughout the experimental period. Feces were collected during the last month of the experiment and divided into three samples. The samples were used to determine apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) for protein, lipid and energy according to

Maynard and Loosli (1969).

The ADC = 100x[1-(%dietary Cr2O3\/%fecal Cr2O3 x % fecal nutrient/ %

dietary nutrient)].

Maynard, L. A. and Loosli, J. K. (Editors) (1969). Animal Nutrition, 6th edition, McGraw Hill Book Company, London, 613 pp.

:النمو واالداء االنتاجى

*- At the end of the feeding trial, the fish were weighed and data collected included weight gain %, feed conversion ratio(FCR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and protein deposition (PD%). FCR, PER and PD (%) were

calculated as follows:

FCR = Total feed intake (g) / (Final body weight-initial body weight)(g).

PER = (Final body weight-Initial body weight)(g)/ Total protein intake (g).

PD (%) = 100 x (Final body weight x final body protein – Initial body weight x initial body protein)/ Total feed intake x dietary protein.

Performance were determined according to Cho and Kaushik (1985) as

following:

SGR (Specific growth rate) = (Ln final weight – Ln intial weight / No of

days experiment).

FER (feed efficiency ratio) = wet weight gain (g) / dry feed intake (g).

FCR (feed conversion ratio) = dry feed intake (G) / wet weight gain (g).

PER (protein efficiency ratio) = weight gain (g) / protein intake (g).

PPV % (protein productive value) = [ (final body N – initial body N) / N

feed ] x 100

ABV (apparent biological value) = PPV / ADC protein Cho. C. Y. and Kaushik. S. J. (1985). Effect of protein intake on metabolizable and net energy values of fish diets. In: C.B. Cowey, A. M.

Mackie and J. G. Bell (Edittors), Nutrition and feecinf in Fish. Academic

Press, London, PP. 95-117.

*- Five fish were randomly sampled from each aquaria at the end of the experiment. They were pooled, ground and freeze-dried, and the body crude protein, lipid, moisture and ash content were determined according to AOAC methods (Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1995).

AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) (1995) Official Methods of Analysis (16th edition (ed. By Helrich), AOAC. Arlington.

VA.

٧٢١

*- Growth response production and feed utilization parameters were calculated as follows: SGR (specific growth rate) (% day-1) = 100 (Ln final weight-Ln initial weight /days; net production = final biomass – initial biomass (kg tank -1); gain in weight (g fish-1) – mean final body weight – mean initial body weight; gain in total length = mean final body total length – mean initial total length (cm fish-1); condition factor (k) = 100(Wt/L3).

Where Wt if fish body weight (BW) (g). L is total length (cm); feed conversion ratio (FCR) = total dry feed fed (g)/total wet weight gain (g); Feed intake (g fish-1) was recorded daily and calculated at the end of the experiment. Net income was determined by the difference between the sale price of the fish after harvest and the costs of fingerlings and food according to Hengsawat, Ward and Jaruratjamorn (1997).

Hengsawat, K., Ward and Jaruratjamorn P. (1997). The effect of stocking density on yield. Growth and mortality of African catfish (Clarias garieplnus Burchell 1822) cultured in cages. Aquaculture 152, 67-76.

:جودة المياه

*- Water temperature and dissolved oxygen were measured every other day (at 8:0 a-m) using titration method (Golterman et al., 1978). Dissolved oxygen was ranged between 4.14 to 5.05 mg/l. Total ammonia, nitrate and nitrate were measured using spectrophotometer (Spectronic 601, USA).

Alkalinity was monitored twice weekly using titration method of Golterman et al. (1978), pH was monitored daily using an electronic pH meter (pH pen: Fisher Scientific. Cincinnati, Ohio, USA).

Golterman, H. L.; Clymo, R. S. and Ohnstad, M. A. M. (1978). Methods of physical and chemical analysis of fresh water. Blackwell Scientific

Piplication, Oxford, 214 pp.

*- Samples of water were taken weekly from each equarium for determination of water temperature using a water thermometer (daily), water pH value using digital pH meter (Orient Research Model 201), dissolved oxygen concentration using an oxygen meter (model 9070).

Analysis of NO2, NO3 and Hardness were carried out using Kits (Hach international Co., Cairo, Egypt). Analysis of alkalinity was performed using a kit (LaMotte International Co., Cairo, Wgypt).

The water temperature was recorded daily in one tank using mercury

thermometer suspended at 30 cm water depth.

dissolved oxygen were measured daily using a YSI oxygen meter (YSI

Model 58 Yellow Springs. OH).

Total ammonia. nitrite and nitrate were measured twice weekly using a DREL, 2000 Spectrophotometer. (Hach, LoveLand, Co, USA).

٧٢٢

pH was monitored daily using an electronic pH meter (pH pen: Fisher

Scientific. Cincinnati, Ohio, USA).

alkalinity and salinity at monthly intervals in one tank per dietary treatment

according to Golterman et al. (1978).

Sampling was performed between.700 and.800 h before any exchange of

water.

*- Water temperature and dissolved oxygen were measured every other day using YSI model 58 oxygen meter (Yellow Spring Instrument, Yellow Spring, OH, USA). Total ammonia and nitrite were measured once weekly using a DREL 2000 spectrophotometer (Hach, Loveland, Co, USA). Total alkalinity and chloride were monitored once a week using the titration method and pH was monitored twice weekly using an electronic pH meter (pH pen, Fisher Scientific, Cincinnati, OH. USA). During the 28-we3e; feeding trial, the average water quality parameters (±SD) were: water temperature, 27.5±0.7°C; dissolved oxygen, 5.2±0.5 mgL-1; total ammonia 0.2±0.1; nitrite..05 ±0.03 mgL-1; total alkalinity. 182±45 mgL-1; chlorides,

550 ± 120 mgL-1 and pH 7.6±0.16.

*- Water quality parameters (temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, ammonia nitrate and nitrite) were monitored to ensure water quality remained well within limits recommended for common carp. Water temperature and dissolved oxygen were measured every other day using an YSI Model 58 oxygen meter. Total ammonia and nitrate was measured weekly using spectronic 601 spectrophotometer. Alkalinity was monitored twice weekly using the titration methods of Golterman et al. (1978). pH was monitored twice weekly using as electronic pH meter. During the feeding trail, the water quality parameter averaged (±SD): water temperature 27.8±0.8; dissolved oxygen 4.8±0.4; pH 7.4±0.6; ammonia..01±0.04 mg/L; nitrite..01±0.05 mg/L; nitrate 1.5±0.2 mg/L; alkalinity 181±46 gm/L.

:الكفاءة االقتصادية

*- Economic evaluation of the experimental diets has been calculated by evaluation the feed cost in Egyptian pounds (L.E) needed to produce 1 kg of alive weight gain of each experimental fish group.

Feed cost (L.E) = (feed cost /kg) X (food consumption)

Price of one kg in weight (Le) (LE/gain"kg”) = feed cost /kg) x FCR.

٧٢٣